8.+Literary+Terms

rony

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Find a concise definition of your assigned word and then give an example from a text (or poem) we have read in class. Please type the definition, any additional explanation you think is needed, and the example below each term. Check out the following links as a start for definitions and explanations [|literary terms] and [|rhetoric terms]. =====

 **__Fiction__** antagonist **character in opposition to the protagonist. in //Beowulf//, Grendel is in opposition to Beowulf. ** anticlimax **a weak or disappointing conclusion. //The Inferno// concludes with little resolved, since Dante still has two more stages to go through. ** dynamic undergoes change. Estella of //Great Expectations // changes from heartless to having a heart.  flat simple and unchanging. Startop plays a minor role in //Great Expectations // and does not change. round characteristics and background are depicted with detail. We are given a lot of background information on Pip in //Great Expectations //. static unchanging. Virgil does not change in //The Inferno//. stock recognizable even with little detail from the author. In Metamorphosis//,// the reader can infer a lot about Gregor. climax <span style="font-size: 13px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); line-height: 19px;">the moment of greatest tension at which the outcome is to be decided conflict <span style="font-size: 13px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); line-height: 19px;">a complication. In //Oedipus//, Oedipus is conflicted when he learns he has married his mother. crisis <span style="font-size: 13px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); line-height: 19px;">a moment of high tension. The scene in <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">//<span class="�3627�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations // where Orlick tries to murder Pip is a crisis. denouement <span style="font-size: 13px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); line-height: 19px;">the outcome, conclusion, resolution. In //Grendel//, this is when Grendel falls to his death. epilogue <span style="font-size: 80%; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">a concluding part after the resolution added to a literary work exposition <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">the opening portion that sets the scene by introducing the main characters and providing background information. //<span class="�3628�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations // opens with an exposition providing information about Pip's background. falling action <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">part of the plot after the climax. After Gregor dies in //Metamorphosis//, the story continues with his family as they move on. flashback <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">a scene relived in a character's memory. Oedipus experiences flashbacks to the crossroads where he murdered the king in //Oedipus//. foil <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">a character who contrasts with a major character. Biddy and Estella are foils of //<span class="�3629�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations .// foreshadowing <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">indication of events to come. The Witches' predictions foreshadow events of //MacBeth//. incident <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">an occurrence of an action or situation that is a separate unit of experience motivation <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">reason explaining a character’s behavior. Pip upset Orlick, giving him motivation to seek revenge on Pip in //<span class="�3630�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations //. narrative voice/point of view <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">perspective first person <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">told from the focal character’s point of view, using "I," "my," etc. allowing the character to convey more emotions. Pip narrates //<span class="�3631�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations // from a first-person point of view. unreliable narrator <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">narrator is biased or ill-informed <span style="color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">third person omniscient (unlimited) the narrator knows everything. The narrator of //Beowulf// is not limited. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">third person omniscient (limited) the narrator has limited knowledge. The narrator of //Metamorphosis// is limited to Gregor's thoughts and feelings. objective <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">goal trying to be acheived. Macbeth's objective in //Macbeth// is to become king. protagonist <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">the central character. Grendel is the protagonist of //Grendel//. rising action <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">events leading up to the climax. The layers of hell in //The// Inferno become increasingly captivating until the climax is reached. stream-of-consciousness <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">literary technique that presents a character’s thoughts and feelings as they occur. Right before Grendel falls to his death, //Grendel// is narrated through his stream of consciousness. subplot <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">a secondary plot strand in addition to the main plot. Miss Havisham's history with Compeyson is a secondary plot line of //<span class="�3632�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations //. theme <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">broad idea conveyed within the text. Existentialism is a theme of //Grendel//. <span style="color: rgb(20, 47, 255);"><span style="color: rgb(0, 78, 255);"> **Drama** act <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">one of the main divisions of a play. Shakespeare divides //Macbeth// into acts. aside<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> the actor speaks to the audience and is not heard by the other characters. Shakespeare uses this technique to create dramatic irony catastrophe <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">the point at which the circumstances overcome the central objective resulting in the dénouement. In //Oedipus//, the discovery that Oedipus is the murderer prevents him from carrying out his promise to find the murderer. catharsis <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">relieving emotional tension. Macbeth kills the two guards to ease his tension in //Macbeth//. comedy<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> genre where the central motif overcomes conflicting circumstances, resulting in a successful conclusion comic relief <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">an amusing scene that follows a scene of high tension. //Macbeth//’s knocking at the gate is a relief from Duncan’s murder. deus ex machina <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">a god introduced into a play to resolve a conflict. farce <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">a light, humorous play focused on plot rather than the development of character. hamartia<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> tragic flaw. In //Oedipus//, his flaw causes everything he was trying to prevent to happen. hero <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">admired for his brave deeds and noble qualities. Beowulf is seen as a hero in //Beowulf//. hubris <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">excessive pride. Oedipus is too proud to realize all the evidence suggests he is the murderer. monologue <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">one actor speaks. In //Macbeth//, Banquo, alone, talks about his feelings towards Macbeth. prologue <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">an introductory scene, preceding the first act of a play. The prologue in //Oedipus Rex// is necessary for the reader to understand background information. scene <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">division of an act. Shakespeare divides each act into several scenes. soliloquy <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">character expresses innermost thoughts while alone. Macbeth struggles with his decision to murder Duncan in his soliloquy about the dagger. tragedy <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">a great person is fated to their downfall because of a tragic flaw. //Oedipus// is a tragedy. tragic flaw <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">the character defect that causes the downfall of the protagonist of a tragedy. Oedipus’s tragic flaw was his poor decision-making. villain <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">character with an evil objective. In //Beowulf//, Grendel is a villain. **Poetry** alliteration<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">repetition of consonant sounds at the beginnings of words. Sweet summer skies. assonance<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">r epetition of similar vowel sounds. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. blank verse <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">written in meter (usually iambic pentameter) but with no rhyme cacophony <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">several harsh, discordant sounds. Blackberry eating. cadence <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">rhythmic pattern. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255); font-family: Times New Roman;"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">Caesura- A natural pause or break in a line of poetry usually near the middle of the line. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">conceit- A fanciful poetic image or metaphor that likens one thing to something else that is seemingly very different <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">consonance- The repetition of similar consonant sounds, especially at the ends of words <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">controlling image- a literary device employing repetition so as to stress the theme of a work or a particular symbol. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255); font-family: Arial;"> couplet- In a poem, a pair of lines that are the same length and usually rhyme and form a complete thought. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">dirge- a brief funeral hymn or song <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">dissonance- harsh-sounding language Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe.” ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">dramatic monologue- a poem representing itself as a speech made by one person to a silent listener, usually not the reader. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">elegy- <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 51);">A poem that laments the death of a person, or one that is simply sad and thoughtful. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">end-stopped line- a verse line ending at a grammatical boundary or break, such as a dash, a closing parenthesis, or punctuation such as a colon, a semi-colon, or a period. The opposite to an end-stopped line is a line subject to enjambment. Bulbs broke out of boxes hunting for chinks in the dark, Shoots dangled and drooped, Lolling obscenely from mildewed crates, Hung down long yellow evil necks, like tropical snakes. And what a congress of stinks! Roots ripe as old bait, Pulpy stems, rank, silo-rich, Leaf-mold, manure, lime, piled against slippery planks. Nothing would give up life: Even the dirt kept breathing a small breath.” <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">enjambment- The continuation of a complete idea (a sentence or clause) from one line or couplet of a poem to the next line or couplet without a pause in Pass/Fail and tells me I pass. Wait 'til they learn I'm dropping out.” ** epic- A long, serious poem that tells the story of a heroic figure. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">euphony- a pleasing harmony of sounds. Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;” ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">foot- Two or more syllables that together make up the smallest unit of rhythm in a poem. For example, an iamb is a foot that has two syllables, one unstressed followed by one stressed. An anapest has three syllables, two unstressed followed by one stressed. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Had **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">WE ** <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">but **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">WORLD **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">e **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">NOUGH **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">and **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">TIME **<span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> .... .. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">1 .......... .. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2 ......... .... <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">3 ............... <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">4 <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">This <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">COY **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">ness <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">LA **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">dy <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">WERE **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">no **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">CRIME **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> code free verse- Poetry composed of either rhymed or unrhymed lines that have no set meter.
 * character**<span style="font-size: 90%; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> a person represented in a story. Grendel, his mother, and the dragon are characters of //Grendel//.
 * (ex) In Beowulf, “Hwæt! We Gar-Dena in geardagum**
 * þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon, **
 * hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.” **
 * (ex).** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> ** In the "The Flea" by John Donne, a metaphysical conceit between a flea and young romance is used to support the narrator's argument for a young woman to give up her virginity. **
 * (ex) “lost” and “past” or “confess” and “dismiss”.**
 * <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">(ex) <span style="color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> In ****Beowulf, the controlling im­age is the hall. There are various changing lights, as halls are built, attacked, restored, and aban­doned.**<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (**ex) In Ars Poetica by Archibald MacLeish “Silent as the sleeve-worn stone/ Of casement ledges where moss has grown-”
 * (ex** <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> ) **In the poem Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll,**  **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">“'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
 * (ex) In the poem “Hazel tells LaVerne”, Hazel is telling LaVerne about an Experience that she has with a frog who wants her to kiss him. At no point in the poem does LaVerne respond to anything that Hazel says.**
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 51);">(ex) The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner **
 * (ex) “Nothing would sleep in that cellar, dank as a ditch,**
 * All of the lines from “Root Cellar” by Theodore Roethke are examples of end-stopped lines because they all end with some sort of punctuation.**
 * (ex) “** **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(55, 55, 55);">My daughter believes
 * In this passage from “Marks” by Linda Pastan only one of the lines end with a punctuation and the rest continue to the next line. This is an example of an enjambment because the though is continuing to the next line.** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex)** **Beowulf**
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">(ex) “In To Autumn” by John Keats, “Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,
 * (ex) ** <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">1 ................. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2 ................ <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">3 .............. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">4 <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">These lines are from “His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell, which has eight syllables (four feet) per line. Each foot consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. **

“I shall never get you put together entirely,

code <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">heroic couplet- A stanza composed of two rhymed lines in iambic pentameter. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">iamb- A metrical foot of two syllables, one short (or unstressed) and one long (or stressed). <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">iambic pentameter- A type of meter in poetry, in which there are five iambs to a line. (The prefix //penta//- means "five," as in //pentagon//, a geometrical figure with five sides. //Meter// refers to rhythmic units. In a line of iambic pentameter, there are five rhythmic units that are iambs.) Shakespeare's plays were written mostly in iambic pentameter, which is the most common type of meter in English poetry <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">image- an expression that describes a literal sensation, whether of hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and feeling. like ancient wall-paper, and its pattern of darker brown was like wall-paper: shapes like full-blown roses stained and lost through age. He was speckled with barnacles, fine rosettes of lime, and infested with tiny white sea-lice, and underneath two or three rags of green weed hung down. While his gills were breathing in the terrible oxygen - the frightening gills, fresh and crisp with blood, that can cut so badly” ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">imagery- is the use of vivid description, usually rich in sensory words, to create pictures, or images, in the reader's mind His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin; If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs” ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">in media res- begins the story at some exciting point in the middle of the action, thereby gaining the reader's interest before explaining preceding events by flashbacks at some later stage. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">lyric- A poem, such as a sonnet or an ode that expresses the thoughts and feelings of the poet. A lyric poem may resemble a song in form or style. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">measure- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 51);">the rhythm of a piece of poetry <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> meter- The arrangement of a line of poetry by the number of syllables and the rhythm of accented (or stressed) syllables. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">Had **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">WE ** <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">but **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">WORLD **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">e **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">NOUGH **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">and **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">TIME **<span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> .... .. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">1 .......... .. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2 ......... .... <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">3 ............... <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">4 <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">This <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">COY **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">ness <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">LA **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">dy <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">WERE **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> | <span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">no **<span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">CRIME **<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">octave- an eight-line stanza or poem <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">ode- a poem of high seriousness with irregular stanzaic forms <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: 'Tis not through envy of the happy lot, But being too happy in thy happiness,– That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees, In some melodious plot Of beechen green, and shadows numberless, Singest of summer in full-throated ease. ** Tasting of Flora and the country green, Dance, and Provencal song, and sun-burnt mirth! O for a beaker full of the warm South, Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene, With beaded bubbles winking at the brim, And purple-stained mouth; That I might drink, and leave the world unseen, And with thee fade away into the forest dim: ** The weariness, the fever, and the fret Here, where men sit and hear each other groan; Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs, Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies; Where but to think is to be full of sorrow And leaden-eyed despairs; Where beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes, Or new love pine at them beyond tomorrow.” ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">persona- the speaker of a poem, a dramatic character distinguished from the poet <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">quatrain- a four-line stanza, rhyming <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">refrain- <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 51);">A line or group of lines that is repeated throughout a poem, usually after every stanza. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> Old age should burn and rave at close of day; Rage, rage against the dying of the light. ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> Because their words had forked no lightning they Do not go gentle into that good night. ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> Their frail deeds might have danced in a green bay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> And learn, too late, they grieved it on its way, Do not go gentle into that good night. ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> Curse, bless me now with your fierce tears, I pray. Do not go gentle into that good night. Rage, rage against the dying of the light.” ** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">repetition- rhetorical device code The Pool Players.
 * Pieced, glued, and properly jointed. **
 * Mule-bray, pig-grunt and bawdy cackles **
 * Proceed from your great lips. **
 * It's worse than a barnyard. **
 * Perhaps you consider yourself an oracle, **
 * Mouthpiece of the dead, or of some god or other. **
 * Thirty years now I have labored **
 * To dredge the silt from your throat. **
 * I am none the wiser. **
 * Scaling little ladders with glue pots and pails of Lysol **
 * I crawl like an ant in mourning **
 * Over the weedy acres of your brow **
 * To mend the immense skull-plates and clear **
 * The bald, white tumuli of your eyes. **
 * A blue sky out of the Oresteia **
 * Arches above us. O father, all by yourself **
 * You are pithy and historical as the Roman Forum. **
 * I open my lunch on a hill of black cypress. **
 * Your fluted bones and acanthine hair are littered **
 * In their old anarchy to the horizon-line. **
 * It would take more than a lightning-stroke **
 * To create such a ruin. **
 * Nights, I squat in the cornucopia **
 * Of your left ear, out of the wind, **
 * Counting the red stars and those of plum-color. **
 * The sun rises under the pillar of your tongue. **
 * My hours are married to shadow. **
 * No longer do I listen for the scrape of a keel **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">On the blank stones of the landing.” **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">“The Colossus”(shown above) by the greatest writer ever, Sylvia Plath, has no set meter and thus is an free verse poem. **
 * (ex) “Only science only will one genius fit;**
 * So vast is art, so narrow wit; **
 * Not only bounded to peculiar arts, **
 * But oft in those confined to single parts” **
 * (ex) u/ “away”**
 * (ex) “A horse!/ A horse!/ My king/dom for/a horse!”**
 * (ex) “ ****<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">his brown skin hung like strips
 * In “The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop, she describes how the fish looks. **
 * (ex) “ ****<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">And watch the white eyes writhing in his face,
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">In this passage of “Dulce Et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen, the word choice allows the reader to get a vivid picture in his or her minds of the horrifying and horrendous death of this poor soldier. **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255); font-family: Arial;">
 * (ex) Metamorphosis by Kafka **
 * (ex) ** <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">1 ................. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2 ................ <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">3 .............. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">4 <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">These lines are from “His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell. The poem is in iambic tetra ****meter, with eight syllables (four feet) per line and each foot consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.**
 * The** **//first//** **8 lines of “This World is Too Much with Us” by William Wordsworth**
 * “The world is too much with us, late and soon,**
 * Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers,**
 * little we see in Nature that is ours**
 * We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon,**
 * like this sea that bares her bosom to the moon,**
 * or the winds that will be howling at all hours**
 * and are upgathered now like sleeping flowers.**
 * with this, with everything, we are out of tune;”**
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">(ex) “My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk,
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">O for a draught of vintage, that hath been **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Cooled a long age in the deep-delved earth,
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Fade far away, dissolve, and quite forget **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">What thou among the leaves hast never known,
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">This poem, Ode to a Nightingale by John Keats, is an example of an ode. **
 * (ex) “’Twas brillig, and the slithy toves**
 * Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:**
 * All mimsy were the borogoves**
 * And the mome raths outgrabe.**
 * This is a quatrain from “Jabberwocky” by Lewis Carroll** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">(ex) “Do not go gentle into that good night,
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Though wise men at their end know dark is right,
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight,
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">And you, my father, there on the sad height,
 * In “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas (poem shown above), the line “Rage, rage against the dying of the light” is the line that is repeated at the end of stanzas one, three, five, and six. The line “Do not go gentle into that good night” is repeated at the end of stanza two and four. **

code

code We real cool. We code <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">rhyme- lines of verse characterized by the consonance of terminal words or syllables. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">end- All rhymes occur at line ends--the standard procedure. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">exact- Rhyme in which the final accented vowel and all succeeding consonants or syllables are identical, while the preceding consonants are different <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">external- external rhyme scheme is a pattern of words that rhyme on the “outside.” edge of the poem – the last syllable in the last word of each line in a stanza. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Behind the wagon that we flung him in <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, And watch the white eyes writhing in his face <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">; If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">,-- My friend, you would not tell with such high <span style="color: rgb(0, 204, 255);">zest <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">To children ardent for some desperate glory <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, The old Lie: Dulce et decorum <span style="color: rgb(0, 204, 255);">est <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Pro patria mori. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">” ** feminine- A multi-syllable rhyme that ends with one or more unstressed syllables <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">internal- Rhyme that occurs within a line or passage, whether or in some kind of pattern: <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">masculine- A rhyme that occurs in a final stressed syllable <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">Near (slant)- The words are similar but lack perfect correspondence. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">rhythm- an audible metrical pattern inside verse boundaries established by the pause <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">scansion- the scanning of verse, that is, dividing it into metrical feet and identifying its rhythm by encoding stressed syllables (stresses, ictus) and unstressed syllables (slacks). <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">sestet- a six-line stanza, or the final six lines of a 14-line Italian or Petrarchan sonnet <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">sonnet- A lyric poem that is 14 lines long. Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnets are divided into two quatrains and a six-line "sestet," with the rhyme scheme //abba abba cdecde// (or //cdcdcd//). English (or Shakespearean) sonnets are composed of three quatrains and a final couplet, with a rhyme scheme of //abab cdcd efef gg//. English sonnets are written generally in iambic pentameter. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">English- (or Shakespearean) sonnet. The Englished form of the Italian sonnet, with three quatrains and a concluding couplet, with the scheme abab cdcd efef gg. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">Italian- a brief song or lyric of indeterminate rhyme scheme, but also a 14-line poem patterned on forms popularized by Petrarch, Wyatt, Surrey, Spenser, and Shakespeare <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">spondee- A metrical foot of two syllables, both of which are long (or stressed). <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">stanza- Two or more lines of poetry that together form one of the divisions of a poem. The stanzas of a poem are usually of the same length and follow the same pattern of meter and rhyme. And a few leaves lay on the starving sod, --They had fallen from an ash, and were gray. ** ** Your eyes on me were as eyes that rove Over tedious riddles solved years ago; And some words played between us to and fro-- On which lost the more by our love.” **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">stress- The prominence or emphasis given to particular syllables. Stressed syllables usually stand out because they have long, rather than short, vowels, or because they have a different pitch or are louder than other syllables. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">trochee- A metrical foot of two syllables, one long (or stressed) and one short (or unstressed). <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">volta- a jump or shift in direction of the emotions or thought, usually somewhat after the middle of the Sonnet <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 18pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">**Figures of Speech** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">allusion- a reference to a historical, mythic, or literary person, place, event, movement, etc <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">apostrophe- an address to a dead or absent person or personification as if he or she were present. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">euphemism- <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 51);">a word or phrase used in place of a term that might be considered too direct, harsh, unpleasant, or offensive  <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">hyperbole- exaggeration beyond reasonable credence <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">litotes- A figure of speech in which a positive is stated by negating its opposite. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">metaphor- A figure of speech in which two things are compared, usually by saying one thing is another, or by substituting a more descriptive word for the more common or usual word that would be expected. extended- <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 51);">A comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph or lines in a poem <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">controlling- Runs throughout an entire work and determines form or nature <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">metonymy- a figure of speech in which the poet substitutes a word normally associated with something for the term usually naming that thing <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">onomatopoeia- A figure of speech in which words are used to imitate sounds <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);"> <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">oxymoron- an expression impossible in fact but not necessarily self-contradictor e.g. in Thomas Hardy’s “Neutral Tones” “words played between us to and fro…the smile on your mouth was the deadest thing”
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Left school. We **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Lurk late. We **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Strike straight. We **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Sing sin. We **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Thin gin. We **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Jazz June. We **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Die soon.” **
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">“In We Real Cool” by Gwendolyn Brooks (shown above), the word “we is repeated” at the end of nearly all of the lines. **
 * (ex) “duck” “cluck” and “truck” **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255); font-family: Arial;">
 * (ex**) **“For all the history of** **grief**
 * An empty doorway and a maple** **leaf”**
 * The two words at the** **//end//** **of these lines in Ars Poectica by Archibald MacLeish rhyme.**
 * (ex) “lagging” and “bagging”** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex) “ **** <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">If in some smothering dreams you too could pace
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">In “Dulce Et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen (shown above) many of the rhymes are external. (If the words are the same color they rhyme). **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex) “** //** paper” and “vapor”, “ **// //** vacation” and “proclamation” .**// <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex) “**//** cat” and “hat” **//**, “**//** endow” and “vow”, “observe” and “deserve” .**// <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex) “A poem should be motionless in** **time**
 * As the moon** **climbs”**<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * The two words at the end of these lines in Ars Poectica by Archibald MacLeish seem to rhyme exactly, but the “s” at the end of climb those off the exactness of the rhythm and makes it a slant rhythm. “Canned” and “Conned” are another example of near (slant) rhythms. **
 * (ex) The** **//last//** **6 lines of “This World is Too Much with Us” by William Wordsworth**
 * “It moves us not. –Great God! I’d rather be**
 * A pagan suckled in a creed outworn,-**
 * So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,**
 * Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;**
 * Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;**
 * Or hear old Trion blow his wreathed horn.”**
 * (ex) “The World is Too Much With Us” by William Wordsworth and “Sonnet 138” by William Shakespeare.**
 * (ex) Sonnet 138 by William Shakespeare**
 * (ex) The World is Too Much With Us by William Wordsworth** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex) “dead set”** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex)“We stood by a pond that winter day,**
 * And the sun was white, as though chidden of God,
 * In “Neutral Tones” by Thomas Hardy (which a part of the poem is shown above) line 1-4 are one stanza and lines 5-8 are another. **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex) In the word “acoustic”, the “ou” sound is stressed and in the word “exploit”, the “oi” sound is stressed.**
 * (ex.) /u “happy”** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex) In “His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell, there is an allusion to the Humber. “I by the tide/ Of Humber would complain.” The Humber is a river in England, which is were Marvell is from.**
 * (ex) “The Tyger” is an apostrophe because he speaks to the tiger as if he is capable of responding.**
 * (ex.) “** ** Passed away” and “went to heaven” are euphemisms for died and “made love” is a euphemism for having sex. **
 * (ex) “My clumsiest dear, whose hands shipwreck vases,**
 * at whose quick touch all glasses chip and ring**
 * Whose palms are bulls in china, bur in linen,**
 * And have no cunning with any soft things”** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * In the first stanza of “Love Poem” by John Freerick Nims (which is shown above), Nims hyperbolizes just how clumsy his love is. He makes it appears as if she can not touch ANYTHING with out breaking/destroying it. **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex.) In Beowulf the poet wrote, “That [sword] was not useless / to the warrior now”, which is a litote for saying that the sword was useful. Saying “I am not unwell” is a litote for “I am fine.”**
 * (ex) ****<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(51, 51, 51);"> “It's raining cats and dogs” **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">(ex) In “anyone lived in a pretty how town” by ee cummings, "Anyone," is a metaphor for any one in the world that chooses to be different. The entire poem is an extended metaphor for life in a society tries to avoid change. **
 * (ex) Blackberry eating is a metaphor for writing poetry throughout “Blackberry Eating” by Galway Kinnell** <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255);">
 * (ex) “But at my back I always hear**
 * Time’s winged chariot hurrying near;”**
 * In this line from “His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvel t** **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(34, 34, 34);">he chariot is an example of metonymy because it becomes a stand in for time. Or in Beowulf substituting “cup” for mead” **<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(0, 39, 255); font-family: Arial;">
 * (ex) “quack”, “buzz”, “moo” **
 * (ex) The line “alive enough to have the strength to die” in “Neutral Tones” by Thomas Hardy is an oxymoron.**
 * personification** giving inanimate objects human actions/emotions

e.g. in A. L. Tennyson’s “The Eagle” “like a thunderbolt he falls”
 * simile** a comparison made between 2 unlike objects using “like” or “as”

e.g. Macbeth’s dagger is literally the weapon he uses to murder Duncan, but it also symbolizes his manhood and his decision to put his thoughts into action.
 * symbol** an object or an action that represents something beyond its literal self

e.g. In Maxine Kumin’s “Woodchucks,” the soldier says “I sight along the barrel in my sleep.” By barrel he means the entire gun. e.g. in Beowulf, a **ship** may be referred to as a **keel** (just the bottom of a ship's hull)
 * synecdoche** a type of metaphor where the part stands for the whole and the whole stands for the part

e.g. In Chapter 1 of John Gardner’s //Grendel//, Grendel complains about the world and its cruelty towards him, but then merely concludes “on **//occasion//** it’s been worse” when in reality he has been traumatized as a child and has faced more than one existential breakdown (7).
 * understatement** expressing something as less of what it actually is, for a similar effect as verbal irony (sarcasm)

= **Elements of Style**= e.g. in Harold Pinter’s //The <span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="�1273�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Dumb Waiter,// Gus talks about a cup and how its “saucer’s black, except for right in the middle, where the cup goes, where its white.” This could have meaning as deep as pointing out how good is surrounded by evil, or one could dismiss it as merely another trivial detail of this theater of the absurd.
 * ambiguity** a word, statement, action, or situation allowing for two or more interpretations that may all be supported by the context of a work

e.g. Act 1 Sc. 1 of //Macbeth// has a chilling, sinister, and foreboding atmosphere because of the thunder and lighting, and the entrance and unfortunate prophecies of the three witches
 * atmosphere** the mood or pervasive feeling created by a work

e.g. Pip and Magwitch in //Great Expectations// “’I think you have got the ague,’ said I. ‘I’m much of your opinion, boy,’ said he” (Dickens 17).
 * dialogue** a conversation between two or more characters; may be used in place of narration to reveal the plot or define characters/setting

e.g. In Elizabeth Bishop’s “The Fish” posted above: //“he was speckled with barnacles,” the choice of the verb creates beauty from ugliness.//
 * diction** the writer’s choice of words (dictionary, get it?)

e.g. “Hazel tells LaVerne” //“Last night / im cleanin out my / howard johnsons ladies room” (K. H. Machan)// versus “The Unkown Citizen” which is more formal, even stiff //“He was found by the Bureau of Statistics to be / One against whom there was no official complaint” (W. H. Auden)//
 * colloquial** familiar, informal language (“local”)

e.g. “immigrant“ is neutral, but “alien” implies an intrusive foreigner
 * connotation** the emotions and other implications associated with a word

//in the previous example, alien literally means “belonging to a foreign country”//
 * denotation** the literal (dictionary) definition of a word

e.g. In “Hazel tells LaVerne,” the speaker’s lack of “proper” grammar reveals that she is probably a lower-income cleaning lady
 * dialect** language spoken by a definable group of people (from a particular region, social class, etc.)

see counterexample for colloquial, “The Unknown Citizen”
 * formal** **diction** dignified, impersonal, elevated language

e.g. in Shakespeare's //Macbeth//: (Act 1 Sc. 6 lines 74-75) "To beguile the time, / look like the time." (Act 1 Sc. 7 lines 94-95) "Away, and mock the time with fairest show. / False face must hide what the false heart doth know." (Act 4 Sc. 2 lines 83-85) "I am in this earthly world, where to do harm / is often laudable, to do good sometime / accounted dangerous folly."
 * epigram** a short satirical, witty, sometimes paradoxical poem; usually 2-4 lines (a brief couplet, quatrain)

e.g. Shakespeare's //Macbeth//, Act 4 Sc. 3 lines 67-73 "Not in the legions / of horrid hell can come a devil more damned / in evils to top Macbeth. ...I grant him bloody, / luxurious, avaricious, false, deceitful, / sudden, malicious, smacking of every sin / that has a name."
 * invective** insulting, abusing, highly critical language

placing the adjective after the noun when we expect to find it before the noun (a type of hyperbaton) also placing the verb before the noun Shakespeare does this in Macbeth, sometimes to fit his writing to the rhythm of iambic pentameter: (Act 3 Sc. 3 lines 3-5) "He delivers / our offices and what we have to do / to the **direction just**." //(inverted noun & adjective)// (Act 3 Sc. 2 line 19) "But let the frame of **things disjoint**, both the worlds suffer..." //(inverted noun & adjective)// (Act 4 Sc. 1 line 45) "Something wicked **this way comes**" //(inverted verb & modifier)//
 * inversion** (**anastrophe**)

having a difference between what appears to be and what is actually true e.g. In //The Metamorphosis//, we’d expect Gregor to show a little more concern that he’s transformed in to a bug overnight, but instead he says “Apart from a really excessive drowsiness after the long sleep, Gregor, in fact, felt quite well and even had a really strong appetite” (Franz Kafka).
 * IRONY**

often achieved with narrated flashbacks and--in plays--asides or monologues e.g. in //Oedipus Rex//, the audience is allowed to put the pieces together way before Oedipus comes to terms with the fact that he murdered his father and slept with his mother
 * dramatic irony** when the audience knows something that the characters don't;

e.g. Lady Macbeth, early on, is the one to insist that Macbeth kill Duncan. e.g. Mr. Wemmick, who comes off as a harsh man to Pip while in Jaggers's office, invites Pip to his home. Wemmick turns out to be a very caring son--a softy who enjoys creativity when it comes to home, complete with a moat and drawbridge.
 * situational irony** what actually happens is exactly opposite of what was expected

e.g. “The Unknown Citizen” “Was he happy? The question is absurd. / Had anything been wrong, we should certainly have heard” (W. H. Auden) poet means opposite of what his speaker, “the establishment” is saying
 * verbal irony** = sarcasm, saying something but meaning the opposite

e.g. Sophocles creates a gloomy mood using a morbid tone in saying “Thebes is tossed on a murdering sea…children die unborn” (4)
 * mood** the emotional atmosphere created by the author/poet

e.g. Shakespeare’s //Macbeth//: “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” (Act 1 Sc. 1 line 12)
 * paradox** a self-contradictory statement that is actually true

e.g. “Don’t count your chickens before they hatch” implies that we ought to refrain from anticipating the future greedily.
 * proverb** a common short saying stating a general truth

Shakespeare does this frequently, like in //Macbeth//: “Much drink…makes him stand to and not stand to” (Act 2 Sc 3 lines 32-36).
 * pun** a play on words

Saying the opposite of what one means
 * sarcasm** see: verbal irony

e.g. “The Unknown Soldier” satirized the unimportant priorities of the cold “establishment” to point out that life is more than being an obedient citizen who fits current social standards.
 * satire** writing that ridicules human folly to bring about social reform

e.g. Gwendolyn Brook’s “We Real Cool” “We /strike straight…We / thin gin. We / Jazz June.”
 * slang** very informal diction (colloquial language)

e.g. biting, scornful, admiring
 * tone** the writer’s attitude toward the subject and the audience
 * note difference between mood and tone (see above)

e.g. the narration by young Pip in //<span class="�3659�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations // is rather humorous, but also sophisticated and acutely observant, as if he’s telling his story as an older, wiser self: “Uncle Pumblechook; a large hard-breathing middle-aged slow man, with a mouth like a fish…every Christmas Day…presented himself, as a profound novelty with exactly the same words, and carrying the two bottles like <span class="�1274�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">dumb bells” (Charles Dickens 22).
 * voice** the unique characterization of the speaker through tone and other elements of style

**Form**

e.g. Galway Kinnell’s “Blackberry Eating” e.g. e.e. cummings’s “anyone lived in a pretty how town” e.g. Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”
 * allegory** a narration or description where events, actions, characters, setting, & objects symbolize specific ideas/abstractions, usually restricted to a single meaning

e.g. In the second chapter of John Gardner’s //Grendel//, Grendel talks about the first time he encountered men when they thought he was a tree god. On the surface, his recount was humorous, but being satirical, it’s message was actually rather sad.
 * anecdote** a short personal---and often humorous---story often told to convey one specific point

e.g. The Diary of Anne Frank or any similar memoirs
 * diary** prose written as if one is recording aspects of one’s life; plot will progress chronologically as seen through the speaker’s eyes

e.g. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth argue about whether to go ahead and kill Duncan (Act 1 Sc. 7)
 * discourse** written or spoken communication, debate

e.g. In Act 1 Sc. 7 of //Macbeth//, Lady Macbeth convinces Macbeth to follow through with Duncan’s murder, asking “what beast was ‘it then, / That made you break this enterprise to me? When you durst do it, then you were a man” as if it were Macbeth’s duty as a husband to do what it takes to become king (Shakespeare lines 54-56).
 * argumentation** how a speaker makes a case for his/her proposal, debating and defending it with (logical) reasoning

e.g. Pip’s characterization of Uncle Pumblechook (see voice) e.g. in J. F. Nims’s “Love Poem” the woman “whose palms are bulls in china” is said to be a “misfit in any space. And never on time.”
 * description** a delivery of details for direct characterization, establishing setting, conveying some other idea, etc.

e.g. In The Metamorphosis, Franz Kafka introduces the demanding family and boss, as well as how “One morning, …Gregor Samsa…discovered that in his bed he had been changed into a monstrous verminous bug. …The dreary weather…made him quite melancholy. …’O God,’ he thought, ‘what a demanding job I’ve chosen!’ …Once I’ve got together the money to pay off my parents deb…then I’ll make the big break. In any case, right now I have to get up. My train leaves at five o’clock.”
 * exposition** usually the beginning of a fictional work where characters and plot are introduced and setting, tone/mood may be set

//**1st person**// (narrator is a character in the story) e.g. Pip, //<span class="�3662�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations // e.g. //Goosebumps// choose-your-own-fate stories //**3rd person**// (narrator is an outside observer, detached from the actions in the story); e.g. //The Metamorphosis// e.g. Beowulf
 * NARRATION** how a story is told (through what speaker and using what stylistic elements)
 * //2nd person//** (audience is a part of the story)
 * //3rd person omniscient//** is aware of all characters’ thoughts and feelings

e.g. Ralph Ellison’s “On Becoming a Writer” e.g. Henry David Thoreau’s “Civil Disobedience”
 * ESSAY** prose written to convey a particular idea, make a case for a specific point (thesis)

A formal essay will usually have serious intentions, even if it is satirical and humorous like “A Modest Proposal," which //pretends// to suggest the solution to poverty is eating babies. http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/modest.html e.g. John Updike’s “The Disposable Rocket,” which discusses certain aspects of manhood e.g. Philip Lopate’s “On Shaving a Beard”
 * formal** written in an elevated, sophisticated style (i.e. formal diction)
 * humorous** written to entertain the audience, although funny references and use of sarcasm may contain deeper meaning (like in satire); may be formal or informal
 * informal** written using familiar, conversational language (i.e. informal diction) that may help to more directly reach out to audience but still convincingly make a serious point

e.g. Aesop’s “The Tortoise and the Hare” tells us slow and steady wins the race.
 * fable** a short story, typically with animal characters, that conveys a moral

e.g. short stories vs. novels, Shakespearean vs. Greek tradgedies
 * genre** a classification of writing/literature

e.g. //<span class="�3663�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations, Grendel//
 * novel** usually a lengthy work written in prose with a complex plot that contains several minor climaxes in addition to the climax of the major issue

e.g. In the //Bible//, there is a story of the prodigal son who strays from home, squanders his father’s money, but is still reaccepted by his father. (lesson of God’s forgiveness)
 * parable** a simple story used to teach a moral/spiritual lesson

e.g. The Porter in //Macbeth// Act 2 Sc. 3 speaks to Macduff in prose. Notice how his speech is not broken up into 10-syllable lines like the other characters, who are of a higher status. “Marry, sir, nose-painting, sleep, and urine. Lechery, sir, it provokes and unprovokes. It provokes the desire, but it takes away the performance” (lines29-31).
 * prose** language written/spoken in its ordinary form, without any metrical structure (opposite of verse)


 * RHETORICAL FORMS** the following three are ways a writer makes a case for his argument and wins over his audience:

e.g. advertisements for family-owned companies, or companies that have been around for more decades e.g. Hollister, est. 1922 e.g. http://about.ralphlauren.com/default.asp?ab=footer_aboutus
 * ethos** an appeal based on the character (the reputation) of the speaker

e.g. commercials that ask for donations to impoverished children, speeches like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream”
 * pathos** an appeal based on emotion & sympathy

e.g. statistical analyses, historical documents e.g. world history textbook
 * logos** an appeal based on logic and reason

e.g. William Carlos Williams’s “The Red Wheelbarrow” does not rhyme, but its one sentence is written in the shape of 4 wheelbarrows //so much depends upon a red wheel barrow glazed with rain water beside the white chickens.// e.g. Shakespeare’s //Macbeth//, written in iambic pentameter (5 sets of stressed & unstressed syllables per line)
 * verse** language written/spoken in broken lines, often with a set rhythmic pattern that may rhyme; the opposite of prose

**Syntax**

e.g. In Act 1 Sc. 5 of Macbeth, Lady Macbeth says “What thou wouldst highly, / that wouldst thou holily; wouldst not play false / and yet wouldst wrongly win” (lines 20-23). e.g. famous saying “To err is human, to forgive, divine.” (Alexander Pope)
 * antithesis** putting together two opposing terms, phrases, or clauses to emphasize their contrasts

e.g. “The wind in our ears drove us crazy and pushed us on.” (taken from class handout)
 * balanced sentence** this is constructed to emphasize a similarity/contrast between two or more of its parts (its words, phrases, clauses)

e.g. Lady Macbeth’s reasoning for having Macbeth murder Duncan (Act 1 Sc. 7)
 * coherence** this refers to the logic & consistency of a piece of writing (so that the individual statements fit together to make a convincing overall argument)

e.g. “If he could have known how nearly the compliment had lost him his pupil, I doubt if he would have paid it” (Dickens 174, from //Great Expectation//<span class="�1279�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;"> )
 * complex sentence** this contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses

e.g. “It further appeared that the book I had seen Mrs. Pocket reading in the garden, was all about titles, and that she knew the exact date at which her grandpapa would have come in tote the book, if he ever had come at all” (Dickens 171 in //<span class="�3666�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations //).
 * compound complex** this contains two or more independent clauses, and one or more dependent clauses

“There were four little girls, and two little boys, besides the baby who might have been either, and the baby’s next successor who was as yet neither” (171). Here in //<span class="�3667�mozilla-findbar-search" style="padding: 0pt; background-color: yellow; color: black; display: inline; font-size: inherit;">Great Expectations //, Dickens doesn’t bother with explaining “either” and “neither” to mean “boy or girl.”
 * ellipsis** the non-metrical omission of letters or words that does not prevent the reader from understanding what is meant

(switching the subject and the verb to fit a phrase to a poetic rhythm, etc.) Shakespeare does this frequently. //See examples under **inversion (anastrophe)**// In //Great Expectations:// "My father's family **name being Pirrip...my infant tongue** could make of both names nothing longer or more explicit than Pip" (Dickens 1). "I took it upon myself to impress Biddy...with the grave obligation I considered my **friends under**" (Dickens 129). "He was throwing his finger at both of us, and I think would have gone on, but for his seeming to think **Joe dangerous**, and going off" (Dickens 128).
 * inverted sentence** reordering the components of a sentence differently from how it would normally be written

e.g. Dylan Thomas’s Quite Early Some Morning “I was born in a large Welsh town at the beginning of the Great War, an ugly, lovely town (or so it was, and is to me) crawling, sprawling by a long and splendid curving shore where truant boys and sandfield boys and old men, from nowhere, beachcomed, idled, and paddled,...hung about on the fringes of the crowd to hear the fierce religious speakers who shouted at the sea, as though it were wicked and wrong to roll in and out like that, whitehorsed and full of fishes.”
 * loose sentence** this expresses its main thought in the beginning of the sentence in correct grammatical form, but then is followed by a string of details, often in segmented phrases

Sources for definitions: [|**http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/display_rpo/terminology.cfm#rhythm**] [|**http://encarta.msn.com/**]

"The Art of Rhetoric: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos." Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) :: Architecture, Business, Engineering, IT, Humanities, Science__. 18 Apr. 2009 <http://www.rpi.edu/dept/llc/webclass/web/project1/group4/>.
 * Rhetorical forms** were found in:

For definition and examples of an **epigram**: http://contemporarylit.about.com/cs/literaryterms/g/epigram.htm http://www.quotations.me.uk/literary-terms/29-epigram.htm

For definition and examples of **inversion** (**anastrophe**) and **inverted sentences** http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/lit_terms_I.html http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/lit_terms_A.html#anastrophe_anchor http://esl.about.com/od/advancedgrammar/a/inversion.htm

//The Metamorphosis// quotes were taken from: Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Trans. Ian Johnston. <http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/stories/kafka-E.htm>.